Antarctica

For the Kim Stanley Robinson novel, see Antarctica (novel)

Antarctica (Greek: "opposite the Arctic") is a continent surrounding the Earth's South Pole, surrounded by the Southern Ocean and divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains.

On average, it is the coldest place on Earth and is 98% covered by ice; however, it is also the world's largest desert. There are no permanent human residents and only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there. Indigenous species include penguins, fur seals, and hundreds of types of algae.

Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ("Southern Land") go back to antiquity, the first commonly accepted sighting of the continent occurred in 1820 and the first verified landing in 1821 by the Russian expedition of Mikhail Lazarev and Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen. The continent had been largely neglected in the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of efficient resources, and its isolated location.

Antarctica is not under the political sovereignty of any nation, although various countries including Argentina, Chile, France, Australia, and New Zealand maintain internationally-unrecognized territorial claims. Its usage is regulated by the Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959 by 12 countries, which prohibits any military activity, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted yearly by more than 4,000 scientists of diverse backgrounds and interests.

History

Image:Shackleton expedition.jpg

Main article: History of Antarctica

In the Western world, beliefs in a Terra Australis -- a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to "balance" out the northern lands of Europe, Asia and north Africa -- had existed for centuries. Even by late in the 17th century, after explorers had found that South America and Australia were not part of "Antarctica," geographers believed the continent was much larger than its true size. European maps continued to show this land until Captain James Cook and the crews of his expedition's ships, Resolution and Adventure, crossed the Antarctic Circle three times between 1772 and 1775.

The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person. It can, however, be narrowed down to three individuals. According to various sources (the National Science Foundation[1], United States House of Representatives member Peter DeFazio[2], NASA[3] and the University of California, San Diego[4]), three men all sighted Antarctica within days or weeks of each other; Fabian von Bellingshausen (a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy), Edward Bransfield (a captain in the British navy), and Nathaniel Palmer (an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). Bransfield supposedly saw Antarctica on January 27, 1820, three days before Palmer sighted land. It is certain that on January 28, 1820 (New Style) the expedition led by Fabian von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev on two ships reached a point within 32 km (20 miles) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice-fields there.

One of the explorers, James Clark Ross, discovered what is now known as Ross Island. He also sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition. [5]

During an expedition by Ernest Shackleton, parties led by T. W. Edgeworth David became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the South Magnetic Pole. On December 14, 1911, a party led by Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen from the ship Fram became the first to reach the South Pole, using a route from the Bay of Whales and up the Axel Heiberg Glacier.

Geography

Image:Antarctica satellite orthographic.jpg

Main article: Geography of Antarctica

The continent of Antarctica is located mostly south of the Antarctic Circle, surrounded by the Southern Ocean. Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth comprising more than 14 million km making it the 5th largest continent. The coastline measures 17,968 km. Physically Antarctica is divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. The portion of the continent west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called Western Antarctica and the remainder Eastern Antarctica, because they correspond roughly to the Eastern and Western Hemispheres relative to the Greenwich meridian. Western Antarctica is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. About 98 percent of Antarctica is covered by an ice sheet that is, on average, 2.5 kilometers thick. [6] Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,897 meters, is located in the Ellsworth Mountains. The West Antarctic Ice Sheet has been of recent concern because of the (small) possibility of its collapse. If it does break down, ocean levels would rise by a few meters in a very short period of time. Despite its zero rainfall in some areas, the continent has approximately 90% of the world's fresh water (as ice).

There are four volcanoes on the mainland of Antarctica that are considered to be active on the basis of observed fumarolic activity or "recent" tephra deposits: Mount Melbourne, Mount Berlin, Mount Kauffman, and Mount Hampton. Notable volcanoes in offshore islands include Mount Erebus, Ross Island and Deception Island.

 |test={{{1|}}}
 |then=Extreme points of Antarctica

 |test={{{2|}}}
 |then={{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=, |else= and }}Antarctic territories

 |test={{{3|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{3}}}]]

 |test={{{4|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{4}}}]]

 |test={{{5|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{5}}}]]

 |test={{{6|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{6}}}]]

 |test={{{7|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{7}}}]]

 |test={{{8|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{8}}}]]

 |test={{{9|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{9}}}]]

 |test={{{10|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{10}}}]]

 |test={{{11|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{11}}}]]

 |test={{{12|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{12}}}]]

 |test={{{13|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{13}}}]]

 |test={{{14|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{14}}}]]

 |test={{{15|}}}
 |then=, and [[{{{15}}}]]

 |test={{{16|}}}
 |then=…template overflow in template:See also: maximum 15 articles allowed

Climate

Main article: Climate of Antarctica

Image:Lake Fryxell.jpg Antarctica is the coldest place on earth. Antarctic has little rainfall, with the South Pole getting none, making it a continental desert. Temperatures reach a minimum of between -85 and -90 degrees Celsius (-121 and -130 degrees Fahrenheit) in the winter and about 30 degrees higher in the summer months. Eastern Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. There is little precipitation over the central portion of the continent, but ice there can last for extended time periods. However, heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 meters (48 inches) in 48 hours have been recorded. At the edge of the continent, strong katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, windspeeds are often moderate. During summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the equator in an equivalent period,

Depending on the latitude, long periods of constant darkness, or constant sunlight, mean that climates familiar to humans are not generally available on the continent.

Several phenomenon are present in the continent. The aurora australis, commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the south pole. Another unique spectacle is diamond dust. Diamond dust refers to a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. Diamond dust generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A sundog, a frequent atmospheric optical phenomenon, is a bright "spot" beside the true sun.

Population

 |test={{{1|}}}
 |then=Demographics of Antarctica

 |test={{{2|}}}
 |then={{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=, |else= and }}[[{{{2}}}]]

 |test={{{3|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{3}}}]]

 |test={{{4|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{4}}}]]

 |test={{{5|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{5}}}]]

 |test={{{6|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{6}}}]]

 |test={{{7|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{7}}}]]

 |test={{{8|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{8}}}]]

 |test={{{9|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{9}}}]]

 |test={{{10|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{10}}}]]

 |test={{{11|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{11}}}]]

 |test={{{12|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{12}}}]]

 |test={{{13|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{13}}}]]

 |test={{{14|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{14}}}]]

 |test={{{15|}}}
 |then=, and [[{{{15}}}]]

 |test={{{16|}}}
 |then=…template overflow in template:See also: maximum 15 articles allowed

Although Antarctica has no permanent residents, a number of governments maintain permanent research stations throughout the continent. The population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter. Many of the stations are staffed around the year.

Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born in Antarctica (Base Esperanza) in 1978, his parents being sent there along with seven other families. Two more people have been born in the continent since then. In 1986, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Soon after, a girl, Gisella, was born at the same station. Image:Iceberg09.jpg

Flora and fauna

Image:Krill.jpg Image:Emperor penguin.jpg Image:Sealu.jpg

 |test={{{1|}}}
 |then=Antarctic ecozone

 |test={{{2|}}}
 |then={{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=, |else= and }}[[{{{2}}}]]

 |test={{{3|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{3}}}]]

 |test={{{4|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{4}}}]]

 |test={{{5|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{5}}}]]

 |test={{{6|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{6}}}]]

 |test={{{7|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{7}}}]]

 |test={{{8|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{8}}}]]

 |test={{{9|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{9}}}]]

 |test={{{10|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{10}}}]]

 |test={{{11|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{11}}}]]

 |test={{{12|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{12}}}]]

 |test={{{13|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{13}}}]]

 |test={{{14|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{14}}}]]

 |test={{{15|}}}
 |then=, and [[{{{15}}}]]

 |test={{{16|}}}
 |then=…template overflow in template:See also: maximum 15 articles allowed

Flora

The climate of Antarctica does not allow for much vegetation to exist. A combination of freezing temperatures, soil quality, lack of moisture and sunlight limit the chances for plants to exist. As a result, plant life is made up of mostly protists. The flora of the continent largely consists of lichens, bryophytes, algae, and fungi. Growth generally occurs in the summer and only for weeks, at most.

There are more than 200 species of lichens and approximately 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are phytoplankton. Multicolored snow algae and diatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. [7]

Fauna

Land fauna is completely invertebrate. Such invertebrate life includes microscopic mites, lice, and springtails. The midge, just 12 mm in size, is the largest land animal in Antarctica (other than man). The snow petrel is only one of three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica and have been seen at the South Pole. [8]

A variety of marine animals exist, and they feed on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, and fur seals. More specifically, the Emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica. The Rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes; one could call them elaborate eyelashes. King penguins are also predominant in the Antarctic. The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. Antarctic krill, which congregate in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, and is an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur seals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds. [9]

Introducing alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty. The taking of native mammals or birds is also illegal.

Politics

Image:Antarctica.jpg

 |test={{{1|}}}
 |then=Antarctic territories

 |test={{{2|}}}
 |then={{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=, |else= and }}[[{{{2}}}]]

 |test={{{3|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{3}}}]]

 |test={{{4|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{4}}}]]

 |test={{{5|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{5}}}]]

 |test={{{6|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{6}}}]]

 |test={{{7|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{7}}}]]

 |test={{{8|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{8}}}]]

 |test={{{9|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{9}}}]]

 |test={{{10|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{10}}}]]

 |test={{{11|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{11}}}]]

 |test={{{12|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{12}}}]]

 |test={{{13|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{13}}}]]

 |test={{{14|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{14}}}]]

 |test={{{15|}}}
 |then=, and [[{{{15}}}]]

 |test={{{16|}}}
 |then=…template overflow in template:See also: maximum 15 articles allowed

Antarctica is considered a neutral territory in respect to politics. The Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959, and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System, regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only uninhabited continent. For the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of the southern 60th parallel. The treaty was signed by 12 countries, including the Soviet Union and the United States, and set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation, environmental protection, and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War. The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature in Antarctica, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon. It permits the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes.

Antarctica has no government. Various countries claim areas of it, but most countries do not recognize those claims. The area between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only land on Earth not claimed by any country.

The only documented large-scale land military manoeuvre was "Operación 90," undertaken 10 years before the Antarctic Treaty by the Argentinian military.

The United States military issues the Antarctica Service Medal to military members or civilians who perform research duty on the Antarctica continent. The medal may include a winter-over bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six-month seasons.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Antarctica

Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they exist in quantities too small to exploit. The 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty prevents such struggle for resources. In 1998, a compromise agreement was reached to add a 50-year ban on mining until the year 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary agricultural activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. [10]

Small-scale tourism has existed since 1957. As of 2006, several ships transport people into Antarctica for specific scenic locations. Since 1969, more than 30,000 tourists have been to Antarctica.[11] Antarctic flights took tourists from Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 in 1979 near Mount Erebus.

Research

Image:Amundsen-Scott marsstation ray h.jpg

 |test={{{1|}}}
 |then=List of research stations in Antarctica

 |test={{{2|}}}
 |then={{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=, |else= and }}[[{{{2}}}]]

 |test={{{3|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{3}}}]]

 |test={{{4|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{4}}}]]

 |test={{{5|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{5}}}]]

 |test={{{6|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{6}}}]]

 |test={{{7|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{7}}}]]

 |test={{{8|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{8}}}]]

 |test={{{9|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{9}}}]]

 |test={{{10|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{10}}}]]

 |test={{{11|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{11}}}]]

 |test={{{12|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{12}}}]]

 |test={{{13|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{13}}}]]

 |test={{{14|}}}
 |then=, {{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}}|then=|else=and }}[[{{{14}}}]]

 |test={{{15|}}}
 |then=, and [[{{{15}}}]]

 |test={{{16|}}}
 |then=…template overflow in template:See also: maximum 15 articles allowed

Every year scientists from 27 different nations conduct experiments not reproducible in any other place in the world. In the summer, more than 4,000 scientists operate research stations; this number decreases to nearly 1,000 in the winter. [12] The McMurdo Station is capable of housing more than a thousand scientists, visitors, and tourists.

Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. Geologists tend to study plate tectonics in the Arctic region, meteorites from the outer space, and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwanaland. Glaciologists in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating ice, seasonal snow, glaciers, and ice sheets. Biologists, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. Astrophysicists in Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station are able to study the celestial dome and cosmic microwave background radiation because of the ozone hole and the location's dry, cold environment. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures. [13]

Since the 1970s, an important focus of study has been the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica. In 1998, NASA satellite data showed that the Antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers. In 2002, significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming. [14]

Image:ALH84001.jpg

Meteorites from Antarctica are a relatively recent resource for study of the material formed early in the solar system; most are thought to come from asteroids but some may have originated on larger planets. The first meteorites in Antarctica were found in 1912. In 1969, the Japanese discovered nine meteorites in Antarctica. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the ice sheet in the last one million years. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are relatively well preserved. [15]

This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these meteorites are pieces blasted off the moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, specifically ALH84001 discovered by ANSMET, are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on early Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets. [16]

See also

• List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands
• Antarctica ecozone
• Antarctic Stamps
• Antarctic Treaty System
• Argentine Antarctic Geopolitics
• Brazil Antarctic Geopolitics
• Chile Antarctic Geopolitics
• Communications in Antarctica
• Extreme points of Antarctica
• Flags of Antarctica
• Life in the Freezer, a BBC natural history television series on life on and around Antarctica
• Mount Erebus disaster
• Transportation in Antarctica

References

• McGonigal, David and Woodworth, Lynn. Antarctica and the Arctic : the complete encyclopedia; Willowdale, Ont. : Firefly Books, 2001. ISBN 1552975452

External links

• 70South
• Antarctic Treaty Secretariat
• ANetStation - radio station in Antarctica
• The Antarctic Digital Database - a source of digital topographic map data for Antarctica
• Australian Antarctic Division
• British Antarctic Survey
• Biodiversity at Ardley Island, South Shetland archipelago, Antarctica
• Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP), official homepage.
• German Antarctic Ships and Stations
• Portals on the World - Antarctica from the Library of Congress
• The Russian State Museum of Arctic and Antarctic
• The Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research - coordinating body for Antarctic Science
• The World Factbook – Antarctica from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency
• Latest Antarctic news and information by 70South
• International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO)

an:Antartida ar:أنتارتيكا ast:Antártida ba:Антарктика be:Антарктыда bg:Антарктида bn:এন্টার্কটিকা bs:Antarktik ca:Antàrtida cs:Antarktida cy:Antarctica da:Antarktis de:Antarktis el:Ανταρκτική eo:Antarkto es:Antártida eu:Antartika fa:جنوبگان fi:Etelämanner fo:Antarktis fr:Antarctique ga:Antartaice gl:Antártida gu:ઍન્ટાર્કટિકા he:אנטארקטיקה hr:Antarktika hu:Antarktisz ia:Antarctica id:Antartika io:Antarktika is:Suðurskautslandið it:Antartide ja:南極大陸 ko:남극 li:Antarctica lt:Antarktida lv:Antarktīda mr:अंटार्क्टिका ms:Antartika nds:Antarktis nl:Antarctica nn:Antarktis no:Antarktika pl:Antarktyda pt:Antártica ro:Antarctica ru:Антарктида scn:Antartidi se:Antárktis simple:Antarctica sl:Antarktika sr:Антарктик sv:Antarktis ta:அண்டார்டிக்கா th:ทวีปแอนตาร์กติกา tl:Antartika vi:Châu Nam Cực tr:Antarktika uk:Антарктида wa:Antartike yi:אַנטאַרקטיקע zh:南极洲 zh-min-nan:Lâm-ke̍k-tāi-lio̍k